EoK Test/Bibliography

Bibliography

Most European languages have a technical term that has its origin in the term bibliographia. In English usage (c. 1814), ‘bibliography’ has historically been used to designate a description of books. In today’s usage, however, it holds the meaning of a list of books or other literature on or relating to a particular subject, and the theory behind these compilations. Moreover, ‘bibliography’ can often vary to a degree, and may include such aspects as the investigation of particulars of the authorship, publication, and printing of a certain work. In the nineteenth c., the term ‘bibliography’ also included the science of the book and the organisation of libraries. This is commonly referred to as ‘historical bibliography’ in contemporary English language scholarship.

In the Korean language, the term sŏjihak is used in the same manner as the English ‘bibliography’. Sŏjihak literally means the ‘study of the records of books,’ which reveals that the aims of this academic discipline in Korea are essentially the same as they are in Western scholarship.

Original Text Bibliographies

The start of bibliography in Korean history can be found during the Three Kingdoms. In this era, books of many kinds were brought from China, and in the process of propagation, these were re-copied. As an integral part of the copying process, any mistaken or confused characters were adjusted, along with the correction of poorly written or erroneous sentences in the original text. In particular, any inconsistencies in the original would be rectified, and in the case of Buddhist texts, discrepancies would be compared with translations of the original in classical Chinese and even with other versions, in order to ascertain the correct word or phrase. With the advent of printing technologies, the need to ensure accuracy of the text became all the more important. An examination of the Dharani Sutra (mugu chŏnggwangdae tarani kyŏng), which is dated 751 C.E.(denoting it as the world’s oldest known printed material), reveals the care in which it was edited. Likewise, the Pohyŏbin tarani kyŏng, which was printed in 1007 at Ch’ŏngji Temple, is significant in that it corrected many of the errors present in the version transmitted from China.

The importance of the individuals who undertook the editing and engraving of woodblocks for the printing of Buddhist scriptures can be seen in both the establishment of the Kyojang Togam (Directorate for Buddhist Scriptures) and also at the end of the works, where the name of the monk who had ensured the accuracy of the work is clearly indicated. Therefore, an examination of an ancient Buddhist text will show the name of the monk, or monks, charged with the proof- reading and editing of the work. The meticulous care given to the correction of mistaken characters, sentences and inconsistencies in the various Buddhist texts is seen in the completion of the P’alman taejanggyŏng (Tripitaka Koreana), which was compiled both from earlier efforts and Chinese sources. There is a thirty-volume record of the many corrections, entitled Koryŏguk shinjo taejang kyojŏng pyŏllok (Record of the Corrections of the New Carving of the Tripitaka of Koyrŏ), written by the monk Sugi. The thoroughness of Sugi is attested in that the P’alman taejanggyŏng carved during Koryŏ is accepted as the most accurate in the world, being almost flawless insofar as omitted characters and erroneous sentences are concerned.

During Chosŏn, procedures for editing and ensuring the accuracy of works before printing were taken to an even higher level than those practised in Koryŏ. Works edited at government offices were assigned to government officials, who completed the corrections. When a book was printed, regardless of whether it was with metal type or woodblocks, the errors in the original were corrected and then noted with a ‘corrected’ (kyojang) stamp. In the case of a book which was to be printed with metal type, a special official at the Office of Compilation and Corrections (Kamgyugwan) was given the task of correcting the work. The ultra-serious attitude in the compilation of books is seen in the legal code of the Taejŏn husongnok (National Code supplement), which prescribed harsh sanctions for errors in a printed work. The government official responsible at the Office of Compilation and Corrections, or any other governmental institution that had participated in the editorial and revision process would be punished by flogging, removal from his post, or by a reduction of pay. Quite clearly, therefore, accuracy in the compilation of books was very important. Consequently, the works printed with metal type during Chosŏn are distinguished by their accuracy and their fine quality.

After Korea’s liberation from the Japanese in 1945, the main thrust of activity in bibliography was expressed in Ch’oe Namsŏn’s revision of the Samguk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) and in the Society for the Advancement of National Culture (Minjok Munhwa Ch’ujin Hoe), which also published revisions of the Samguk yusa and the Samguk sagi (History of the Three Kingdoms). Also, at this time, Cho Pyŏngsun compiled Chŭngsu poju samguk sagi (Supplemented and Enlarged History of the Three Kingdoms). A thesis published on the subject of bibliography is ‘Saero palgyŏndoen kop’an pon samguk sagi’ (Newly Discovered Ancient Editions of the History of the Three Kingdoms) by Ch’ŏn Hyebong. There are other other works by Korean scholars which seek to analyse the origins and contents of Korea’s ancient works.

Bibliography Systems

The importance of bibliographical techniques in the compilation of books in Korea was traditionally greater than in China, and this was due to the Korean desire to create accurate woodblock-print works. Today, the oldest extant bibliographical examinations are the three volumes of Shinp’yŏn chejong kyojang ch’ongnok (New Catalogue of Buddhist Sectarian Writings) written by Ŭich’ŏn when he was editing the P’alman taejanggyŏng, and Taejanggyŏng mongnok (Catalogue of the Tripitaka Koreana), which is also in three volumes. In compiling Shinp’yŏn che chon’g kyojang ch’ongnok, Ŭich’ŏn consulted scriptures, laws, commentaries and other Buddhist writings from Koryŏ, Song China, and Japan, et al, in order to prepare an accurate version of the Buddhist scriptures. Ŭich’ŏn’s work is notable in that it represents the first such work in East Asia and therefore, remains a valuable bibliographical resource to the present-day. The Taejanggyŏng mongnok, which is now kept at Haein Temple, is highly regarded for the study of the compilation process of the later compilation of the P’alman taejanggyŏng in that it deleted the supplements contained by the Shinp’yŏn chejong kyojang ch’ongnok and replaced the original omissions. And so, it provides an accurate record of the editorial process in the compilation of the P’alman taejanggyŏng.

During Chosŏn, with the intent to republish documents printed before the 1592 Japanese Invasion, materials were gathered from every corner of Korea for the Kosa ch’waryo. Serving a similar purpose for works printed after the invasion is Koch’aekp’an sojae ko (Treatise on the Whereabouts of Ancient Printing Blocks); which is a catalogue of works up until the mid-nineteenth c. Falling between these two works is Sŏ Yugu’s 1796 catalogue, Nup’an ko (Treatise of Printing Plates), which is considered the principal authority on bibliography throughout Chosŏn. Other bibliographical catalogues of Chosŏn include, Kosŏ mongnok chipsong (Catalogue of Ancient Books) and Han’guk ch’aekp’an mongnok ch’ongnam (Catalogue of Korean Printing Blocks).

With regard to those bibliographic works that introduce various aspects of Korean scholarly works, Kim Hyu’s Haedong munhŏn ch’ongnok (Bibliography of Historical Documents) catalogues various literary records dating from Shilla to mid-Chosŏn. This work, compiled during the reign of King Injo (r. 1623-1649), contains records of some 670 documents. Other works include, Naryŏ yemun chi (Literary Records of Shilla and Koryŏ) and Naryŏ munjŏk chi (Catalogue of Shilla and Koryŏ Documents), which both focus on the early periods in Korea. Other bibliographies from late Chosŏn include those written by foreigners such as the Bibliographie Coréenne (Bibliography of Korea) compiled by M. Courant in four volumes, and Kosen satsufu (Record of Ancient Korean Books) compiled by Maema Kyŏsaku in three volumes. A number of contemporary works have been widely acclaimed for their discussion of bibliographical explanation, such as the eight-volume Han’guk chŏnjŏk chonghap mongnok (Complete Catalogue of Korean Works) published by the Society for the Preservation of National Literary Materials (Kukhak Charyo Pojon Hoe) from 1974 to 1980, and which contains a catalogue of private libraries.

Present State of Bibliographic Studies

Today, bibliographical studies in Korea encompass many facets of the discipline. Some of the aspects covered include the development of commentary concerning books, their origin and title changes. The shape and form of the book is also under scrutiny, with bibliographers looking at the changes in binding types, in printing technology and printing methodology, among other apects. Their research is highly- specialised, with many bibliographers focusing on a particular era or genre of book, thereby making significant contributions to academic research.

Vast areas of scholarship still remain to be thoroughly examined in Korean bibliographical studies, such as an understanding of which particular qualities in Korean literature are uniquely Korean; and which elements of the Korean lifestyle are represented in literature and Korean consciousness, value systems and ideological beliefs. Today, academic enquiry in the field of bibliographical study seeks to find answers to these and other questions, through a deep understanding of Korean literature and its developments over the past 1 500 years.

Bibliography

• Blum, Rudolf. Bibliographia: An Inquiry into its Definition and Designations. trans. Mathilde V.

Rovelstad. Chicago: American Library Association, (1969) 1980.